Introduction
Undoubtedly, one of the accepted indicators of a truly democratic society is the regular holding of General Elections during which a country’s citizens freely exercise their franchise to select a government of their choice. As part of our British Colonial heritage this practice has been enshrined in our constitutions for more than a century. Even though there were several general elections in British Guiana before 1947, the focus of the next few articles will be to reflect on the six decades of general elections starting with that of November 1947 and ending with that of August 2006. The elections will be considered in three parts: those prior to our achievement of political independence, those held during the tenure of the People’s National Congress (PNC) and those which have so far taken place under the current People’s Progressive Party (PPP/C) administration.
Background to the 1947 general elections
The 1947 elections were the first to be held after a period that was dubbed “the long parliament”. The last elections had been held in 1935 but due to the exigency of World War II coupled with the difficulties associated with the implementation of the recommendations of the Moyne Commission which were to precede any new elections, the elections had been delayed.
The West India Royal Commission had been constituted following widespread disturbances in all Britain’s Caribbean colonies in the second half of the 1930’s. These disturbances were due mainly to deteriorating economic conditions blamed partly on the lack of representation of the unrepresented classes in the decision-making institutions of the colonies despite the promises of the Crown Colony system of government. The mandate of the Commission was “to investigate social and economic conditions in Barbados, British Guiana, British Honduras, Jamaica, the Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Windward Islands, and matters connected therewith, and to make recommendations.” Among others, it recommended greater representation in the Legislative Council “to ensure that the people were given an increased share in their government…” and that a local commission be set up to decide on the extent of changes to the franchise. The 1941 British Guiana Franchise Commission in its 1944 report recommended against the introduction of universal adult suffrage and in favour of a reduction in the property qualification for voters and for candidates for election to the Legislative Council. It also recommended the establishment of equal opportunities for both males and females to secure election to the Legislative Council. It was against this background that the 1947 general elections were conducted.
The 1947 general elections
Like many previous elections, the focus of the 1947 elections was on individual candidates rather than formalized political parties, even though quasi political parties, like the Popular Party, had existed since the 1926 general elections. However, by 1947 other organisations deemed the political concerns of members an integral part of their mandate. These organisations included the League of Coloured Peoples, the British Guiana East Indian Association, the Political Affairs Committee, the Women’s Political and Economic Organisation and the several trade unions. All of them either endorsed or sponsored candidates for the elections.
However, an attempt was made to form a political party specifically to contest the elections. In June 1946, the British Guiana Labour Party was formed. Its lack of depth and fragility are best summarized in the words of its President, Dr. J. B. Singh. At its inaugural public meeting, he described it as “a Political Amalgam of our racial groups in British Guiana.” In The West On Trial, Cheddi Jagan described it as “a group of individuals from many fronts coming together at the top than a mass organization starting from the bottom.” It failed to unite the different factions and did not long survive the defeat of its proteges in the elections. The most significant outcome of those elections was Cheddi Jagan’s elevation to membership of the Legislative Council.
The 1953 general elections
The 1953 general elections were conducted under totally different circumstances. Firstly, they were held under the auspices of universal adult suffrage. This fact alone guaranteed a significant change in the extent of political participation by the masses. Secondly, the elections were contested by more genuine political parties. The nationalist mass-based P.P.P. created out of the Political Affairs Committee and “the remnants of the defunct British Guiana Labour Party”, the National Democratic Party (NDP), an offshoot of the League of Coloured Peoples, the People’s National Party, a breakaway faction of the (NDP), the United Guiana Party and the United Farmers and Workers Party contested the elections. The last two named parties were described as representing “loose coalitions of aspiring individuals rather than being real political parties.” All the parties spelt out their programmes to the electorate. The result of the April 27, 1953 elections showed that from an electoral roll of 208,939 persons, 152,429 valid votes were cast. 51% of them were cast for PPP candidates and that party won 18 or 75% of the 24 seats. 78 candidates lost their deposits.
Before the 1953 general elections, the relatively progressive Waddington Constitution had been introduced, but the PPP had been in office for only 133 days when the constitution was suspended for a plethora of unsupported allegations which masked Colonial Office fears that British Guiana would become a communist beachhead. Consequently, the constitution was suspended and an Interim government under a “marking time” constitution with no elected members was imposed.
The 1957 general elections
After three years of “marking time” under an Interim constitution, the electorate of British Guiana was to go to the polls to elect a government under a constitution which would now include an elective element. The Interim government turned out to be a collection of 13 individuals with little in common that could weld them into an effective political force. They lacked the capacity to implement the ambitious development plan that had been envisaged. Additionally, the administration was rocked by several unsavory incidents. A very significant event during the Interim period was the contentious split of the nationalist PPP into Burnhamite and Jaganite factions.
These two factions of the PPP in addition to three other parties contested the 1957 general elections. As a result of that election, the Jaganite faction of the PPP won 9 seats from their 55,552 or 45.5% of the votes, roughly the same percentage as East Indians in the population. The Burnhamite faction of the PPP gained 3 seats from their 29,802 or 25.5% of the votes cast, the National Labour Front (NLF) 1 seat from their 13,465 or 11.5% of the votes cast, and the United Democratic Party (UDP) l seat from their 9,564 or 8% of the votes cast. Unfortunately, the 1957 General Elections also saw the beginning of the process of institutionalization of appeals to the populace to vote according to race. Additionally, according to Daniels, the increasing importance of anti-communist politics by parties opposed to the Jaganite faction of the PPP underscored the extent to which that ideology had influenced the nature of the country’s politics.
The 1961 general elections
There were four years of continued political “marking time” under the unsatisfactory Renison constitution that had been introduced after the 1957 elections. The PPP interpreted their landslide victory as a mandate from the British Guianese people to govern in what they interpreted to be their best interest. The way they chose to do business did not always sit well with the Colonial authorities and their American allies, both paranoid about a communist take over. In 1960, two important events occurred. There was the establishment of the ultra conservative, anti-co
mmunist, United Force by the Portuguese businessman, Peter D’Aguiar. The previous year, the Burnhamite faction itself of the PPP had united with the UDP and renamed itself the People’s National Congress.
In March 1960, a constitutional conference was held in London as a result of the August 1959 report of the 1958 Constitutional Committee. The British Guiana delegation consisted of 3 members of the PPP, 2 members of the PNC and one from the Guiana Independence Movement and 2 nominated members of the Legislative Council. The main outcome of the conference was the acceptance of the principle of independence. However, first there was to be a new constitution under which elections would be held. One of the principal features of the new constitution was the division (Baber and Jeffrey described it as the gerrymandering) of the country into 35 constituencies.
As a result of the elections, the PPP gained 20 seats from 43% of the votes cast, the PNC, 11 seats from 41% of the votes cast, and the United Force 4 seats from 16.3% of the votes cast. Under the First Past the Post system, the PPP, even though they had gained only 2% more votes than the PNC won almost double the number of seats. With the Indo-Guianese birth rate exceeding that of the other ethnic groups and a pattern of continued racial voting already discernible, the call for a change in the electoral system, previously hinted at, now began to gain momentum. The 1961 general elections served to confirm that “Apan Jaat politics” which had visited in the 1957 elections had found a home.
In the next article, the examination of the last elections before independence will be undertaken and the consideration of those held under the PNC begun.